Literature Review On Remote Sensing Environmental Sciences Essay

Literature Review On aloof Sensing Environmental Sciences proveRemote sensing is the science or art of acquiring reading about the Earths pop without actually being in contact with it. This is make by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and acting, analyzing, and applying that information. In overmuch of unlike sensing, the process involves an interaction in the midst of incident radiation and the targets of interest. (Dr. S. M. Rahman, 2001).Remote sensing makes it possible to collect info on jeopardiseous or inaccessible aras. Remote sensing acts take monitoring deforestationin atomic number 18as such as theAmazon Basin,glacialfeatures in Arctic and Antarctic regions, anddepth soundingof coastal and ocean depths. Military collection during the acold Warmade usance of stand-off collection of entropy about dangerous border areas. Remote sensing overly replaces costly and slow information collection on the ground, ensuring in the process that are as or objects are not disturbed. Remote sensing exceedingly influences everyday life, ranging fromweather forecaststo reports on mode changeornatural disasters. As an example, 80% of the German students recitation the services ofGoogle Earth. (Wikipedia, 2012)In recent time, with mans increasing interventions with the environment, the situation is aggravated. The quality of for sale selective information is extremely uneven. Land use formulation base on unreliable data jakes prevail to costly and gross errors. defect wearing away research is a capital-intensive and time-consuming exercise. Global extrapolation on the tooshie of few data collected by diverse and non-standardized rules disregard lead to gross errors and it can also lead to costly mistakes and misjudgements on censorious policy issues. So, outback(a) sensing provides convenient solution for this problem. Moreover, voluminous data ga on that pointd with the help of remote sensing techniques are batter handl ed and utilized with the help of Geographical data System (GIS). (M. H. Mohamed Rinos, 2000)There are ii different overturees that can be adopted for determining the characteristics of landslip from remote sensing data. The first approach determines more qualitative characteristics such as number, distribution, type and character of debris flow. This can be achieved with either transmit or air borne imagery collected in the visible and infrared light regions of the spectrum. The next approach complements the qualitative characterization, estimating dimensions (e.g. duproportionn, width, thickness and local set up, motion, and debris distribution) on and across the mass movement. (V. Singhroy, 2004)Literature Review on Geographical Information System (GIS)Geographical Information System (GIS) is utilize to ar play the computing device hardware, software, and geographic data. It helps the people interact, decompose, identify relationship and find the solutions to the prob lems. The system is knowing to capture, store, update, manipulate, go bad, and display studied data and used to perform analyses (ESRI, 2005). Since 1970s, GIS has been used to give out various environments. But the extensive application of GIS to hydrologic and hydraulic mannequining and flowage stageping and management begin from early 1990s. (M supporterment, 2000).GIS has the mogul to represent altitude in terms of topographic surfaces is central to geomorphological analyses and olibanum to the importance of representing topography apply digital Elevation Model (DEM). It is through and through the distribution of foulness that the land surface changes over the long term and so the ability to link sediment transfer with DEM changes. (Schmidt, 2000)ArcView GIS desktop software provided the tools of single-valued subroutine features that leave al unity affect a propertys value such as crime rates, environmental games, and the condition of surrounding neighborhoods a nd properties. ESRIs ArcGIS is a GIS which is exerting with maps and geographic information. ArcGIS software can be used for following functions creating and employ maps, compiling geographic data, analyzing mapped information, manduction and discovering geographic information, exploitation maps and geographic information in a range of applications, and managing geographic information in database. (Wikipedia, ArcGIS, 2012). The ArcGIS provides tools for constructing maps and geographic information.Literature review on state wear commonwealth wearing is one form of vulgarism degradation along with kingdom compaction, low organic guinea pig, and expiration of land structure, ridiculous internal drainage, salinization, and fault acidity problems (Wall, 2003). When the degradation of the footing is acquire serious, it leave behind contribute in accelerate the soil erosion. Soil erosion is a natural process it usually does not cause any major problem to the environment . The soil is carried by the agents such as wind, water, ice, animals, and the use of tools by man. Soil erosion is a very slow process and even unnoticeable sometime, but it may occur at an alarming rate which do the loss of topsoil.Farmers worldwide are losing about 24 billion tonnes of topsoil to separately one family. In developing countries, because of the population pres authorized sensation forces land to be more intensively resurrected, the erosion rates per acre are twice as high as the standard. The soil erosion also will affect the productivity and growth. This is because when the soils are depleted and crops receive poor nourishment from the soil, the food provides poor nourishment to people. The rate of losses soil is faster than the creation of new soil. The difference between creation and loss represents an annual loss of 7.5 to 10 tonnes per acre worldwide. (DeHaan, 1992)The eroded soil that enters watercourse will reduce the water quality, reduces the effic iency of the get aroundiculars drainage system and also decreases the retention capacity of lakes. Sediment is the eroded soil that settles in the water systems. aggregation of the sediment will reduce the capacity of a river or reservoirs to temper flood water. Thus, it requires a lot of money to clean the sediment a good deal and manually. Sediment also can block the sunlight for aquatic do and inhibit fish spawning. The water becomes not safe for drinking if there is runoff of chemical and nutrients from surrounding farmers fields.In Malaysia, soil erosion is a common natural occurrence. This is due to particular topography, soils and corresponding vegetation that tower and the extensive rain that the country experiences. However, accelerated soil erosion is suitable a serious problem in Malaysia because of rapid land use developments. Various forms of erosion control have been proposed to develop the land in ways that are sensitive to its geography. (Abdullah, 2005)Lite rature review on rewrite Universal Soil dismission EquationThe development of Universal Soil damage Equation (ULSE) initially was to assist soil conservationists in farm planning. They used ULSE to estimate the soil loss on specific slopes in specific fields. USLE was a guide for the conservationist and farmer to control the erosion if the estimated soil loss exceeded acceptable limits.Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) is a science tool that has been alter over the utmost several years. It is found on USLE and makes some improvement on the equation. The RULSE has improved the effects of soil roughness and the effect of local weather on the annunciateion of soil loss and sediment delivery. (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation, 2003). RUSLE can be used for settle military rating and planning purposes and to aid in the decision in selecting erosion control verse. The RUSLE provides numbers to recognise the benefits of planned erosion control measures and also an e stimate of severity of erosion.A = R.K.LS.C.PA is annual soil loss (tonnes/ha/year).R is rainfall erosivity factor. It is an erosion index for the given storm period (MJ.mm/ha/h)K is soil erodibility factor. It is the erosion rate for a specific soil continuous fallow condition on a 9% slope having a space of 22.1m (tonnes/ha/(MJ.mm/ha/h))LS are topographic factor. It represents the slope aloofness and the slope steepness. It represents the ratio of the soil loss from a specific site to that from a unit site (9% slope with slope length 22.1m) composition other parameters are held constant.C is the cover management factor. It represents the protective insurance coverage of canopy and organic real(a) in direct contact with the ground.P is the support practice factor. It includes the soil conservation operations and other measure of control erosion.Literature review on USLE and RUSLETable 2.1 Comparison of USLE and RUSLE (Renard, 1991) chemical elementUSLERUSLERBased on long ter m average rainfall conditions for specific geographic areasData from more weather stations and thus the value are more precise for any given location.RUSLE computes a correction to R. This is to reflect the effect of raindrop impact for flat slopes striking water ponded on the surface.KBased on soil texture, organic matter content, permeability, and other factors inherent to soil type.Adjusted to account for seasonal changes such as freezing and thawing, soil moisture, and soil consolidation.LSBased on length and steepness of slope, regardless of land use.Assigning new equations based on the ratio of rill to interrill erosion, and accommodates complex slopes.CBased on cropping sequence, surface residue, surface roughness, and canopy cover, with are weighted by the percentage. Lumps these factor into a table of soil loss ratios, by crop and tillage scheme. torpedo factors (prior land use, canopy cover, surface cover, surface roughness, and soil moisture) are used. Dividing each year into rotation of 15 day intervals, then calculate the soil loss ratio for each period. The value need to recalculate if one of the sub factors change.RUSLE provides improved estimates of soil loss changes as they occur throughout the year, especially relating to surface and near surface residue and the effects of mood on residue decomposition.PValues change depending on the slope ranges with some distinction for various ridge heights. It is based on elicitation of practices that slow runoff and thus reduce soil movement.Values are based on hydrologic soil groups, slope, row grade, ridge height, and the 10 year oneness storm erosion index value.In RUSLE, it computes the effect of strip-cropping based on the transport capacity of flow in dense strips congener to the kernel of sediment reaching the strip.The P factor for conservation planning considers the amount and location of deposition.Literature review on landslideLandslides are a type of soil erosion and major natural geol ogic take chancess. Each year, the landslide is responsible for enormous property damage which involves both direct and indirect costs. Malaysia experience frequent landslides. According to the local theme report in the years 2006-2009, along east coast highways in Peninsular Malaysia, in Sabah (East Malaysia) and in the island state of Penang, heavy rainfalls triggered landslides and mud flows. (Pradhan, 2009)Landslides overstep when there are changes from a stable to an unstable condition in the stability of a slope. There are natural causes and humankind causes which bring to a change in the stability of a slope. Natural causes of landslides includeGroundwater (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slopeLoss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients and soil structureErosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean wavesWeakening of a slope through saturation by snowmelt, glaciers melting, or heavy rainsEarthquakes adding hemorrhoid to barely tab le slopeEarthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopesVolcanic eruptionsLandslides that are due to human causes areDeforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already fragile slopeVibrations from machinery or trafficBlastingEarthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new fill up on existing slopeIn shallow soils, the removal of puddleed vegetation that bind colluvium to bedrockConstruction, agricultural or forestry activities which change the amount of water which infiltrates the soil. (Wikipedia, 2012)Landslides in Malaysia are mainly triggered by tropical rainfall and flash floods. The rainfall and floods cause the rock to fail along fracture, pin and cleavage planes. The geology of Malaysia is quite stable but continuous development and urbanisation lead to deforestation and erosion of the covering soil layers thus causing serious threats to the slopes (Pradhan, 2007). Abandoned project at hill sites for a real period which affec ting the maintenance of the slopes could causing the slopes to collapse.List of landslide events happened in Malaysia1 May 1961 A landslide occurred inRinglet,Cameron Highlands,Pahang.21 October 1993 The artificialPantai Remis landslidecaused a newcoveto be formed in the coastline.11 declination 1993 48 people were killed when a block of theHighland Towers collapsedatTaman Hillview,Ulu Klang,Selangor.30 June 1995 20 people were killed in the landslide atGenting Highlands vitrine roadnearKarak Highway.6 January 1996 A landslide in theNorth-South state highway(NSE) nearGua Tempurung,Perak.29 August 1996 A mudflow near Pos DipangOrang Asli declaration inKampar,Perak, 44 people were killed in this tragedy.15 May 1999 A landslide nearBukit Antarabangsa,Ulu Klang,Selangor. Most of theBukit Antarabangsacivilians were trapped.20 November 2002 Thebungalowof theAffin Bank death chair General (RtD) Tan Sri Ismail Omar collapse causing landslide inTaman Hillview,Ulu Klang,Selangor.D ecember 2003 A rockfall in theNew Klang Valley Expressway(NKVE) near theBukit Lanjan commute caused the expressway to close for more than six months.31 May 2006 four-spot persons were killed in thelandslidesat Kampung Pasir, Ulu Klang, Selangor.26 December 2007 Two villagers were buried liveborn in a major landslide, which destroyed nine wooden houses in Lorong 1, Kampung Baru Cina,Kapit,Sarawak.12 February 2009 one contract worker was killed in a landslide at the construction site for a 43-storey condominium inBukit Ceylon,Kuala Lumpur.21 May 2011 16 people mostly 15 children and a caretaker of an orphans asylum were killed in alandslide caused by heavy rainsat the Childrens Hidayah madrasa Al-Taqwa orphanage in FELCRA Semungkis,Hulu Langat,Selangor. (Wikipedia, 2012)A scientific analyses of landslides need to be bear out to pretend landslide-susceptible areas, and thus reduce landslide damages through proper preparation and mitigation. So, understanding landslides and pr eventing them is a serious challenge across worldwide.Literature review on past research and studies denominationThe application of GIS-based logistic regression for landslidesusceptibility function in the Kakuda-Yahiko Mountains, central JapanAUTHOR, YEARLulseged Ayalew, Hiromitsu Yamagishi, 2005 call for AREAKakuda-Yahiko Mountains and their surroundings.OBJECTIVE / CONCEPTTo employment the landslide risk around the Kakuda-Yahiko Mountains.To breeding the use of logistic regression.To shew the combination bivariate statistical analyses (BSA) to simplify the interpretation of the model. orderOLOGY / method actingAnalytical approachesIn LR or even in linear regression, it does subatomic good to combine data with different measuring scales.Make sure that data have been normalized in a manner LR needs. Failure to do so generally leads to problems during the interpretation of the last-place declarations.Statistical resultsOverall model statistics of the regression conducted in this canvass using IDRISI.Coefficient positive indicating that they are positively related to the hazard of landslide formation through the log transformation. prodigy probabilities and the construction of the susceptibility mapIn addition to the model statistics and coefficients, the final result of the regression process in IDRISI is a addressed map of prospect defined by numbers that are constrained to fall between 0 and 1.The more these numbers are close to 1, the better they orient the likelihood of finding the mapped landslides.Depending on the independent parameters considered, the landslide inventory map and the statistical approach used, the best predictor parameters and the predicted probability map of a logistic regression can vary considerably.OUTPUT / SUMMARY / leave aloneLandslides are portrayed according to the types of movements namely slide, fall, flow, spread and topple.The principle of logistic regression (LR) rests on the depth psychology of a problem, in w hich a result measured with dichotomous variables such as 0 and 1 or true and false, is determined from one or more independent factors.TITLEAssessment of soil erosion and sediment delivery ratio using remote sensing and GISAUTHOR, YEARWeifeng ZHOU and Bingfang WU, 2008 determine AREAupstream Chaobaihe River catchment, north China.OBJECTIVE / CONCEPTTo develop monitoring of soil losses in the upstream Chaobaihe River Catchment.To develop a model by using Geographic Information System tools.To compute sediment delivery ratio (SDR) per hydrological unit.METHODOLOGY / METHODData CollectionRemote sensing data, digital elevation model (DEM), and land use and land cover GIS data were used.Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)Simple empirical model, based on regression analyses of soil loss rates on erosion plots in the USA.The model is designed to estimate long-term annual erosion rates for agricultural fields.A = RKLSCA represents mean (annual) soil loss, R is the rainfall vitriolic facto r, K is the soil erosibility factor, L is the slope factor, S is the slope length factor, and C is the cover management factor.OUTPUT / SUMMARY / RESULTThe work indicated there are a number of advantages in using the modified USLE equation including the ability to combine it with a raster-based GIS to produce a cell-by-cell home for mapping spacial patterns of soil erosion rates.The advantage of using a GIS raster based framework is that it allows one to quantify the impact of a single factor on the overall result and it can also intimately be updated with improveddatasets.TITLESoil erosion hazard evaluation An integrated use of remote sensing, GIS and statistical approaches with biophysical parameters towards management strategiesAUTHOR, YEARMd. Rejaur Rahman, Z.H. Shi, Cai Chongfa, 2009STUDY AREAWithin the Danjiangkou County, with an area of 3115.58 km2 and located in the north-western part of Hubei res publica of China.OBJECTIVE / CONCEPTTo develope numerical model for soil erosion hazard assessmentTto analyze soil erosion by attempting to estimate the volumes or masses of soil lossMETHODOLOGY / METHOD abstract of study areaThe selected area is within the Danjiangkou County, with an area of 3115.58 km2 and located in the north-western part of Hubei province of China.Sandy clay loam, silt loam and sandy loam on the study area play a dominant role in soil erosion by water.Data acquisition and preparationPrepare and analyze the different types of data in soil erosion prediction and hazard assessment as there are many factors that affect soil erosion status.Soil erosion estimationModels are needed to predict soil erosion rates under different resource and land-use conditions. existential erosion prediction models continue to play an important role in soil conservation planning and are widely used to predict soil erosion.OUTPUT / SUMMARY / RESULTThe Z-score abridgment with GIS and selected parameters, provided a hazard assessment of soil erosion of the ar ea. The methodology of combining the Z-score with GIS provided an improved method for the synthetic evaluation of soil erosion hazard, which extended the GIS capability of spatial analysis and the Z-score capability of multi-layer analysis.TITLESpatial Prediction of Landslide misadventure Using Discriminant AnalysisAUTHOR, YEARPeter V. Gorsevski, Paul Gessler, Randy B. Foltz, 2000STUDY AREARocky Point, a small watershed of the Clearwater River Basin in central Idaho.OBJECTIVE / CONCEPTTo study the concept of Discriminant Analysis and GIS.To analyze the landslide hazard area on Rocky Point.METHODOLOGY / METHODPrincipal Component Analysis (PCA)Help to analyze the multivariate data set.Discriminant AnalysisClassify presence and absence of landslides using principal region scores.Discriminant analysis is a multivariate technique that is used to build rules that can split up landslide hazard into appropriate class.Cross- brassEstimate the probabilities of misclassification.Cross-valid ation method removes each observation vector from the calibration data set at a time, forms the discriminant rule based on all the remaining data to classify the removed observation, and notes whether the observation is correctly classified.GISprovided a detailed basis for spatial prediction of landslide hazard.OUTPUT / SUMMARY / RESULTHazard map motherd.Graph of multivariate normal probability plot for the principal division scores.TITLERemote sensing and GIS-based landslide hazard analysis and cross-validation using multivariate logistic regression model on three trial run areas in Malaysia.AUTHOR, YEARBiswajeet Pradhan, 2010STUDY AREAPenang, Cameron and Selangor.OBJECTIVE / CONCEPTTo generate cross-validation of a multivariate logistic regression model using remote sensing and GIS for landslide hazard analysis.METHODOLOGY / METHODData and materialInterpreting aerial photographs and satellite images (SPOT 5 and Landsat TM) of study area.These aerial photographs were taken duri ng 1981-2006 and were acquired from Malaysian Remote Sensing Agency data archives.Data analysis using ARC/INFO GIS software package and a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was constructed.These data are related to the primary eects (impact of debris or inclusion of aected site from previously occurred landslides) of a wide variety of landslide typesModel ApproachingTraditional approach using a multivariate logistic regression model implemented in a GIS framework.The landslide hazard analysis is a function of a variety of variables that include slope, aspect, curvature, topography, distance from drainage, land cover, soil texture and types, geology and distance from lineament, rainfall precipitation, and the normalized dierence vegetation index (ndvi)The coefficient applied to the study area, for landslide hazard mapping.Multivariate logistic regression modelEasier to use than discriminant analysis when have a mixture of numerical and categorical regressors , because it includes procedur es for generating the necessary skunk variable automatically.Application of multivariate logistic regression model on landslide hazard mapping.Validation of the model.OUTPUT / SUMMARY / RESULTThe validation results showed a satisfying agreement between the hazard maps and the landslide locations confirm in the field.TITLEGIS Application in Landslide Hazard AnalysisAUTHOR, YEARChyi-Tyi Lee, 2009STUDY AREAShihmen Reservoir Catchment Area in Union Taiwan.OBJECTIVE / CONCEPTTo analyze the landslide hazard area using GIS application.METHODOLOGY / METHODImage and data collectionThe basic data utilized included a 5m x 5m grid DEM, SPOT5 images, 1/ergocalciferol photo-based contour maps, 1/50000 geologic maps and hourly rainfall data.Establish of event-based landslide inventoryTo develop susceptibility model, only considered new landslides triggered by typhoons.Landslides triggered by Typhoon Aere were interpreted and delineated by comparing SPOT5 images taken before and subsequently th etyphoon.Determination of causative factors and triggering factorsThese factors are then statistically tested and y effective factors selected for susceptibility analysis.10 factors are selectedLithology, slope gradient, NDVI, slope roughness, visibleness curvature, total slope height, relative slope height, topographic wetness index, distance to a fault, maximum rainfall intensity.AnalysisConstruction of model via logistic regression.logistic regression to determine a linear function of factors for interpreting the landslide distribution from a set of training data.The linear function is used to calculate the landslide susceptibility index (LSI) for each cell.The LSI used to establish a probability of failure to LSI curve and determine the spatial probability of landslide occurrence at each cell.Landslide susceptibility mappingThe landslide hazard area could be for the prediction of future landslides providing a scenario rainfall distribution is given.OUTPUT / SUMMARY / RESULTSucc essfully predict landslide location, area and volume in a drainage turning point or catchment area using GIS.